Adlerian Theory and Human Development

The life-span perspective proposes that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, contextual, and involves growth, maintenance and regulation (Santrock, 2006, p.7). Psychoanalytic theories, psychosocial theories, behavioral theories and cognitive theories hypothesize about causes of human behavior. Each theory has a philosophical base. This philosophical base may impact assessment and treatment goals. This paper will examine the Individual psychology of Alfred Adler and its philosophical approach to development. Background of events leading to the advancement of the theory will be addressed. Aspects of the theory pertaining to the life-span perspective of development will be presented. The developmental views of Individual psychology will be illustrated with examples from cases studies. Last, criticisms of Adler’s Individual psychology will be evaluated.       
Background: Like Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was a Neo-Freudian (Clinebell, n.d.). Once a member of Freud’s Psychological Society, Adler left the group over disagreements with Freud on several issues. For example, Freud viewed aggression and sexual urges as the driving forces behind human behavior. Adler argued that people are motivated by social concerns of belonging, security and esteem. Contrary to Freud’s premise of unconscious instincts, Adler believed that psychologically healthy people can be consciously aware of their motivation. Farsightedly, Adler discounted Freud’s concept of penis envy, countering that women were not envious of a man’s penis, but of his status and privileges in society.   There is some interpretation of Freud’s work that indeed makes a tie between penis envy and status and privilege. 
Aspects of Adler’s life history are, from the perspective of Individual psychology, intriguing. One of seven children born to middle class Jewish parents in Vienna, Alfred Adler was the third child and second son. As a small child, he had rickets and did not walk until the age of four. At five, he almost died of pneumonia. He knew then, that he wanted to be a doctor. Outgoing and fun, he sought to outshine his older brother. He married a Russian socialist. In Vienna, he practiced medicine in a poorer area of the city. In 1904, Adler converted from Judaism to Protestantism. Sent to serve as a doctor on the Russian front during World War I, he was deeply moved by the suffering and lack of compassion and humanity. In 1907, Adler turned his full attention to psychiatry and joined forces with Freud. Breaking with Freud, Adler founded the organization for Individual psychology. He lectured and toured until his death of a heart attack in 1937. Respected by the likes of Maslow, Rogers and Horney, Adler is looked at as a forerunner to humanistic psychology (Boeree, 2006; Clinebell, n.d.).  
Adler’s social conscience and interest in healing accompanied him throughout his life. Further, these themes in Adler’s life are reflected in his theories – just as he would have predicted. According to Individual Psychology, themes are representative of the unique, subjective, holistic, purpose-driven nature of human beings (Dreikurs, 2002; Burns, 1998).
In addition to this view of human nature, key concepts in Individual psychology offer explanations for human development and are pertinent to the life-span perspective. Baltes (as cited in Santrock, 2006) characterizes the life-span approach to development as followings: lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, contextual and involving growth, maintenance and regulation.  Using the characteristics of the life-span perspective, the approach of Individual psychology to developmental issues will be discussed. 
Development is lifelong: Individual psychology makes two significant assumptions about human nature and lifelong development. First, human beings are helpless at birth. This means that individuals are automatically confronted with feelings of inferiority. The child’s creative self develops strategies to overcome these feelings of inferiority within the family system. Depending on the child’s subjective assessment of the situation, strategies may be adaptive or maladaptive. Moreover, from the child’s point of view, the family system is the “world”.  Decisions made in childhood have an effect on future development as strategies developed to deal with the family system are carried into other social situations. Due to this aspect of subjective choice, Adlerians assert that personal happiness or unhappiness is ultimately in the hands of the individual (Dreikurs, 2002; Dreikurs & Soltz, 2005; Mitchell, 2006).
The second assumption concerns teleology (Mitchell, 2006). Teleology presupposes that people are motivated by goals for the future – conscious or unconscious. It is not just a matter of overcoming inferiority; individuals naturally strive to complete themselves (self-actualization). Consequently, to understand an individual’s behavior, it is important to discover their future goals (Dreikurs, 2002). The question is not “why” (causal) but “for what purpose” (final). Important is the coupling of a belief (private logic) with a goal (fictional final goal). Normally, final goals concern significance, belonging and/or security. Final goals also override other desires and determine actions taken. For example, individuals may have problems with others. They may express the desire to work out the problems. But during the conflict, they may react in different ways. Some withdraw from the situation. Withdrawal may serve many purposes. One purpose could be to avoid saying something that could displease the other person. The absurdity of this final goal could be: only when everyone is pleased with me, am I loved. Significantly, private logic is subjective and unique to each individual.     
Development is multidimensional: Every person is born with cognitive, biological, and socioemotional weaknesses, strengths and preferences. Behaviorists, such as Skinner, believe that operant conditioning shapes development (Santrock, 2006). Ethologists emphasis the influence of biology. Adler’s approach stresses the power of individuals to decide for themselves the meaning and significance of inherited qualities and life events. The individual determines the direction in life (Dreikurs, 2002). The childhood event is less important than the interpretation given it. Important is the fact that interpretations are open to change. 
Adler’s concept of organ inferiority demonstrates this point (Boeree, 2006; Dreikurs, 2002). This concept asserts that everyone is born with some kind of physical weakness. For example, poor eyesight, a stutter, or big ears may cause a sense of inferiority. Individuals form their opinion as to the importance of their weakness (schemas of apperception). This opinion affects their self-concept, sense of “connectedness” to others and choice of goals. Some will compensate for the weakness and perceived sense of inferiority. A physical weakness may inspire someone to become an Olympic champion. To compensate for ugliness, a plain girl may work hard to become a beauty queen. Or a physical weakness may inspire someone to concentrate on intellectual or social skills. Added to this are psychological inferiorities. Some children are told that they are stupid. To compensate, they may strive to be financially successful in life.
Important is the individual’s degree of social interest (Gemeinschaftsgefühl) (Boeree, 2006; Clinebell, n.d.; Dreikurs, 2002). Given enough social interest, people will choose socially useful ways to compensate. They will take into account the well-being of others. Too little social interest (often caused by caring and cooperation not being modeled in the family) will result in compensation goals which are selfish and not useful to others. The greater the sense of inferiority, the greater the need for (over)compensation and the greater the inequality (subjective) in relationships.                            
 Development is multidirectional: Selfish goals become evident through the manner in which individuals approach life tasks. Dreikurs (2002) presents Adler’s three life tasks: love, work and social relationships. Interestingly, he adds two others: connectedness to oneself and spiritual connectedness. Success in dealing with life tasks depends to a large extent on the individual’s ability to successfully relate to others on an equal level. Most people have their greatest chance in succeeding in the “work task” because work relationships are often superficial and the need for financial security motivates people to put their maximum effort into this area. The “love task” on the other hand, causes people the most trouble because it requires the capacity for close relationships and, more importantly, for equal relationships. Social relationships present the best measure of an individual’s social interest because they are voluntary. Unnecessary for love or money, friendships represent an individual’s desire to be with other people.    
Mitchell (2006) explains that fear of failure in these areas prompts individuals to choose selfish goals. Individuals, who are afraid of failing in life tasks, lack courage and take actions to avoid life tasks rather than face them. This is the source of much unhappiness and psychopathology. Feelings of inferiority become exaggerated and serve as an excuse for selfish, anti-social behavior. Some examples include neurosis (i.e. unrealistic expectations of self and others), inferiority complex (i.e. submissiveness), and superiority complex (i.e. bullying). Moreover, methods to protect self-esteem are erected (safeguarding techniques) (Stein, n.d.). People make excuses (i.e. phobias, depression, anxiety), become aggressive (i.e. depreciation, accusation, self-accusation, guilt) or withdraw (i.e. mentally, emotionally, physically). 
Interesting is an experience this writer had with the safeguarding technique of constructing obstacles. In this type of situation, individuals overcome self-created obstacles which serve to safeguard self-esteem. A client complained of extreme anxiety (i.e. headaches, vomiting) when she had to present something before a group or audience. Her standards of “good enough” were very high. In her mind, she could not be held to the same standard as others because she achieved more than others when she presented something. She had her anxiety to overcome as well.  
Development is plastic: Individual psychology makes two assertions about stability and change (Dreikurs, 2002). First, the unexamined life will remain consistent in its goals. These “fictional final goals” are established early in life and people are not necessarily conscience of them. Moreover, the holistic view suggests that these goals will create patterns and themes and be evident in various aspects of a person’s life. Adlerians refer to this consistency in self-concept, worldview and relationships as the style of life or lifestyle (Lebenstil). For example, people in counseling will present a variety of problems which upon closer examination are the same problem (i.e. fear of rejection, need to win).   
Second, Individual psychology is optimistic and confident in the creative potential and capacity for growth of human beings (Clinebell, n.d.). This is reflected in their phenomenological approach to counseling (Stein, n.d.). Therapists seek a cooperative and equal relationship with the client. The Socratic style of questioning is used to encourage insight and strengthen the client’s sense of courage and social interest.  Interventions are based on the belief that people, made aware of their private logic, are capable of conscious choice and change. Furthermore, the Adlerian approach assumes that psychologically healthy people are in a continual process of self-actualization (Clinebell, n.d.).        
Development is multidisciplinary: Individual psychology takes into account the various influences and interactions at work in human nature and development. Already mentioned is the biological element in the concept of organ inferiority. Clinebell (n.d.) cites Adler’s ability to recognize the influences of social relationships and social values on human development. He especially admires Adler’s integration of these elements into the therapeutic process. Moreover, Clinebell underlines Adler’s appreciation for the feminist perspective and the effects of religion on personal growth. Mitchell (2006) adds that Adler’s concept of social interest combines with emotional intelligence and the intellect in many aspects of life (i.e. sex, school, friendship, work). Furthermore, Individual psychology lends itself well to other therapy methods (i.e. Art therapy, Psychodrama). Interestingly, Burns (1998) sees Adlerian psychology as an ethical theory with strains of Darwinism. Like Darwinism, Adlerian theory sees human nature striving toward perfection. A political element is also evident. The theory encourages people to contribute to and cooperate with the community. This implies cultural contributions and moral responsibilities for the well-being of others. Finally, according to Burns, Individual psychology’s philosophical and ethical perspective of development takes on cosmic proportions. Human beings, interconnected with all living things, are being driven by a cosmic force to grow. 
Development is contextual: Individual psychology, like life-span development, asserts that individuals need to be understood in context. This view is demonstrated by the emphasis on the family of origin constellation (Dreikurs, 2002; Dreikurs & Soltz, 2005). In therapy, many aspects of the family system are viewed as contributing factors to development. Roles played by family members, family atmosphere and family values are examined and evaluated. For example, it is assumed that no two children will take the same role. If one child is the “smart one,” the other children will attempt to find their place in the family by being something else (i.e. the “sporty one,” “daddy’s princess”). In most cases, the second child will be the opposite of the first child because the second child will seek to be what the first child is not. Birth order is important. For example, certain characteristics are associated with first, second, third and four children. The pattern then repeats itself. Only children, youngest children, pampered children and neglected children take on certain characteristics which affect development. Gender matters. Parental style is also significant, particularly in terms of encouragement or discouragement for the child. Interesting is the phenomenon of people recreating their family atmosphere as adults, even if they did not like it.
Early childhood memories reveal a great deal about context as well. People do not remember everything that happened in their childhood, especially before the age or five or six. So the memories that individuals do have of early childhood are significant. According to Stein (n.d.), it does not matter if the memories are accurate or false. They will, in any case, disclose the individual’s key beliefs and feelings. 
Important to development from an Adlerian perspective is the amount of encouragement children receive. Too little encouragement will result in faulty goals (Dreikurs & Soltz, 2005). The severity of the faulty goal increases with the reduction in courage. There are four types of faulty goals: exaggerated need for attention, need for power and superiority, revenge, and giving up. A child, who gives up, is totally discouraged. Faulty goals, if not examined, may be carried into adulthood. What is more, Individual psychology adds an additional faulty goal for adults: making excuses for personal shortcomings (Ruthe, 2004).  Good. 
       Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation: Baltes and colleagues (as cited in Santrock, 2006) state that it is a challenge to balance growth, maintenance and regulation in life, especially in middle and late adulthood. Santrock (2006) cites the growing significance of religion and search for meaning in life starting in middle adulthood. Ruthe (2004) examines the role of pastoral counseling in addressing these issues. He also advocates the use of Individual psychology. He sees the approach as beneficial to the healing process. Feelings of fear, hopelessness, guilt, anger and jealousy may be confronted. Beliefs that cause inflexibility, such as the need to be right and fanaticism, may be questioned. Hidden intentions and goals may be exposed and addressed.  
Furthermore, Stein (2005) asserts that Maslow’s pyramid of needs presents a framework in which the potential for human growth and development is demonstrated. According to Stein, Maslow’s pyramid confronts psychologists with possibilities for individual self-actualization. Moreover, Stein believes that Adler provides the methods and techniques to make this type of self-actualization take place. When fictional final goals, faulty subjective views, feelings of inferiority and unrealistic private logic are dissolved, avenues for a real foundation for security, belonging and a sense of self-worth will be achievable. Interesting is the manner in which the pyramid illustrates basic needs and growth needs. For example, the top of the pyramid consists of self/other/task-actualization. This includes among other characteristics: efficient perception of reality; acceptance of self, others and nature; spontaneity; social feeling; unhostile sense of humor; and autonomy. 
Criticisms of Individual psychology: Clinebell (n.d.) laments that both Adler and Freud were not big enough to acknowledge the accomplishments of the other. In Clinebell’s opinion, Adler ignores the darker, unconscious side of human nature. This results in Adler’s theory exuding a superficial quality. Boeree (2006) adds that Adler’s theories do not have measurable variables. They are instead “useful constructs.”  Thus, Individual psychology is difficult to investigate using scientific methods. According to Santrock (2006), scientific methods are important as a measure to judge the accuracy of a theory’s hypotheses.   
The life-span perspective details seven characteristics of human development. Diverse psychological schools of thought propose theories pertaining to human development and growth. Alfred Adler’s Individual psychology elucidates development from its philosophical point of view. Theories and perspectives impact assessments and treatment plans. Subsequently, views and approaches to development affect future development. Adlerians would suggest that people become aware of their goals and choose future goals for beneficial development of themselves and others.    
References
Boeree, G. (2006). Personality Theories: Alfred Adler. Retrieved on December 7, 2006. from, http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/adler.html 
Burns, J. (1998). Individual Psychology as Applied Ethics. Retrieved on December 7, 2006. from, http://www.mackenthun.homepage.t-online.de/ip/en/ethik_e.htm 
Clinebell, H. (n.d.). Chapter 2: Growth Resources in Traditional Psychotherapies, Alfred Adler and Otto Rank. Retrieved on December 7, 2006, from, http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1939&C=1745
Dreikurs, R. (2002). Grundbegriffe der Individual-psychologie.[Basic Concepts of Individual Psychology].(10th ed.). Stuttgart:Klett-Cotta
Dreikurs R. & Soltz, V. (2005). Kinder Fordern Uns Heraus.[Children: the Challenge].
	(13th ed.) Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta 
Mitchell, G. (2006). Adler’s Individual Psychology. Retrieved on December 7, 2006. from, http://www.trans4mind.com/mind-development/adler.html
Ruthe, R. (2004). Seelsorge: Wie Macht Man Das? [Pastoral Counseling: How is it done?]. Basel: Brunnen Verlag
Santrock, J.W. (2006). Lifespan Development with Life Map CD ROM  and PowerWeb. (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Stein, H. (n.d.). Classical Adlerian Psychology. Retrieved on December 5, 2006. from, http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/hstein/encycl.html
Stein, H. (2005). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Stages of Psychotherapy. Retrieved on December 6, 2006. from, http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/hstein/Needs.htm